During the following years, the same fate befell Tutsi politicians, officers, journalists, and leaders of civil society whose loyalty to the regime was in doubt. Provincial governors ( prefets), local mayors, head teachers, clerics, and judges were killed in increasing numbers. Reyntjens (2011) pointed out:įrom early 1995, Hutu elites became the victims of harassment, imprisonment, and even physical elimination. Early strengthening of state institutions was driven by security concerns, and the post-conflict regime had high ambitions for a reform effort though there were democratic deficits and human rights concerns (Samset, 2011). They deviated from academic research by not democratizing – though the RPF put on a great show. They focused on security (reform of military), economic recovery (reducing poverty), and state building (dominating politically, enacting laws, and rewriting history). The RPF party had become the “savior” of Rwanda, had a “genocide credit,” and immediately began to ensure their place was secure to remain in power. Going forward, we will focus on what peace building measures were taken politically and psychosocially, but keep in mind, “peace” is a relative term. The RPF has maintained power over the last thirty years. By avoiding democracy and using authoritarianism to control the state and people, a “repressive” peace has occurred. Four elements of peace building (in research led by Boutros-Ghali and Collier) include security, democracy, economic recovery, and state building, and though Rwanda succeeded in post-conflict peace, it has done so in a unique way. Collective violence occurred repeatedly, especially in the first four years.” Wars occurred in the Congo in 1996-2002 to fight Rwandans of the Hutu majority that had fled the country, and internal conflict continued (Samset, 2011). 268) stated, “Rwanda was certainly not ‘post-conflict’ in the first 15 years after the genocide in 1994. There was still violence to ravage the Rwandan people. Typically, throughout history, political and economic development in societies have been associated with violence – not peace. When the civil war ended, the violence did not end with the RPF securing Kigali. Although the genocide was horrific, Rwanda was not immediately at peace.
The Rwandan Patriotic Front (RPF) secured Kigali from Hutu rule, and the civil war ended however, “studies show that a main determinant of whether there will be a recurrence of a civil war is the duration and destructiveness of the preceding violence” (Ricigliano, 2012). President Habyarimana’s death in April 1994 started the genocide of Tutsis by Hutus resulting in over 800,000 Rwandan deaths after failed peace agreements (Ricigliano, 2012). After failing in the Arusha Peace agreements, the international community was about to see how ugly tensions in Rwanda really were.
Democratization in 1990 caused President Habyarimana to separate party and state. During the 1980’s, class and regional polarization grew due to overpopulation, and resource scarcity caused exploitation of land and famine. After decolonization, massive communal violence erupted, and tensions were heightened. The Tutsis were highly favored due to their lighter complexion, and the Hutus were seen more as rural occupants and farmers – the laborers. Rwanda had already been polarized between the Hutus and the Tutsis due to early colonization by Belgium and France.
This essay reviews the Rwandan conflict, peace building measures and implications in the political and psychosocial areas and concludes with additional thoughts on peace building and academic research. From the realist view, they have all the power and will use any tactic to maintain that power. The term “repressive” is used because the government has control of the country politically, economically, and psychosocially. Rwanda’s efforts of peace building have created a “repressive peace” in the political and psychosocial spheres on these levels.
Change needs to take place at each of these levels for forward movement. Structural refers to systems and policies within the state cultural includes norms, values, and patterns of shared basic assumptions and behavioral refers to how individuals act in the state and how well they work together (Ricigliano, 2012).
#PSYCHO 1998 POST CREDITS DRIVERS#
Ricigliano (2012) states there are three key drivers of systemic change: structural, cultural, and behavioral change. Reflection, hindsight, and history have all contributed to the peace building efforts Rwanda has taken to restore its country however, Rwanda is a unique example of peace building measures because it doesn’t quite fit the academic literature progression of peace and reconciliation. It has been almost thirty years since the violent conflict and genocide that occurred in Rwanda between the warring Hutus and the Tutsis.